We test whether X is necessary, or sufficient, or both, for an outcome Y. All the permutations of the causal factors, known as X variates, are considered one by one. Fuzzy sets or crisp sets, and combinations can be used in QCA. A crisp set is a membership value of 0 (not in the set) or 1 (fully in the set), and thus is a simplified measure compared with a fuzzy set. A fuzzy set is a record of the membership score of a case in a characteristic or set. We demonstrate the fsQCA software for QCA. delineating cases secondly organising a systematic data matrix (we will show these in NVIVO and in Excel) thirdly examining sets of cases known as configurations fourth interpreting these in terms of ‘necessary cause’ and ‘sufficient cause’ of each major outcome of interest. Qualitative Comparative Analysis is a systematic method of studying data on multiple comparable cases from about N=8 through to large datasets of N=10,000 etc. The QCA methods firstly involve casing, i.e.
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